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THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BEHAVIOR  OF  AN 
INDIVIDUAL  CHILD 


THE  STUDY  OF  THE  BEHAVIOR  OF 
AN  INDIVIDUAL  CHILD 

SYLLABUS  AND  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BY 


JOHN  T.    MCMANIS 

Professor  of  Education,  Chicago  Normal  College 


BALTIMORE: 

WARWICK  &  YORK,  INC. 

1916 


wi/317 


Copyright,  1916, 
by 
Warwick  &  York,  Inc. 


PREFACE. 


This  Syllabus  is  the  outgrowth  of  attempts  to  direct 
prospective  teachers  in  classes  in  Education  to  under- 
stand child  life  in  the  city.  In  doing  this  work  it  has 
been  found  more  effective  to  study  individual  cases 
rather  than  the  child  as  a  type  or  children  in  general. 
As  soon  as  a  young  woman  has  assumed  responsibil- 
ity for  the  study  and  care  of  an  individual  child  she 
has  sought  for  general  material  and  for  advice  to  help 
her  understand  her  problem.  The  fundamental  as- 
sumption underlying  the  course  is  that  the  child  is 
like  other  living  creatures.  Placed  under  the  artificial 
environment  of  the  city  he  is  handicapped  in  many 
respects  and  it  is  the  business  of  education  to  re- 
move such  handicaps  so  far  as  possible.  In  order 
to  do  this,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  the  child's 
life  in  detail  and  to  see  the  kind  of  conditions  essential 
for  his  proper  growth. 

No  attempts  at  completeness  have  been  made  in 
either  the  Syllabus  or  the  Bibliography.  The  object 
has  been  to  suggest  lines  of  study  for  persons  who  are 
not  expert  investigators  but  who  are  to  become 
teachers  of  the  young.  The  books  and  references 
given  are  such  as  are  available  to  beginning  students. 

In  offering  the  work  to  the  public  the  author  hopes 
that  it  may  serve  to  ameliorate  the  lot  of  children  in 
the  city. 


CONTEXTS 

Preface 1 

I.     Introduction 5 

II.     General  Method  of  Studying  Behavior  of  the  Child 7 

III.  Physical  Conditions 10 

IV.  Home  Conditions 14 

V.     Plays  and  Games 18 

VI.     Instinctive  Activities 21 

VII.     Outside  Interests  and  Activities 25 

VIII.     School  Life 28 

IX.     Mental  Characteristics  and  Disposition 31 

X.     Learning  Process 34 

XL     Language 37 

XII.     Drawing 41 

XIII.  Movements  and  Motor  Ability 45 

XIV.  Moral  Characteristics 48 

XV.     The  Exceptional  Child 52 


150202-^ 


INTRODUCTION. 

In  a  recent  book*  the  following  statements  occur, 
statements  which  serve  to  give  the  point  of  view  of  this 
Syllabus:  "One  of  the  greatest  results  of  the  doctrine 
of  organic  evolution  has  been  the  determination  of 
man's  place  in  nature.  For  many  centuries  it  has 
been  known  that  in  bodily  structure  man  is  an  animal; 
that  he  is  born,  nourished  and  developed,  that  he 
matures,  reproduces  and  dies  just  as  the  humblest 
animal  or  plant.  .  .  .  But  wholly  aside  from  the 
doctrine  of  evolution,  the  fact  that  essential  and  funda- 
mental resemblances  exist  among  all  kinds  of  organ- 
isms can  not  fail  to  impress  thoughtful  men.  Life 
processes  are  everywhere  the  same  in  principle,  though 
varying  greatly  in  detail.  All  the  general  laws  of 
life  which  apply  to  animals  and  plants  apply  also  to 
man.  This  is  no  mere  logical  inference  from  the 
doctrine  of  evolution,  but  a  fact  which  has  been 
established  by  countless  observations  and  experiments. 
The  essential  oneness  of  all  life  gives  direct  human 
interest  to  all  things. 

"One  of  the  greatest  and  most  far-reaching  themes 
which  have  ever  occupied  the  minds  of  men  is  the 
problem  of  development.  Whether  it  be  the  develop- 
ment of  an  animal  from  the  egg,  of  a  race  or  species 
from  a  pre-existing  one,  or  of  the  body,  mind  and  insti- 
tutions of  man,  this  problem  is  everywhere  much  the 
same  in  fundamental  principles,  and  knowledge  gained 


'Conklin,  Heredity  and  environment  in  the  development  of  man. 

5 


6  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

in  one  of  these  fields  must  be  of  value  in  each  of  the 
other.  Ontogeny  and  phylogeny  are  not  wholly  dis- 
tinct phenomena,  but  are  only  two  aspects  of  the  one 
general  process  of  organic  development.  The  evolu- 
tion of  races  and  of  species  is  sufficiently  rare  and  un- 
familiar to  attract  much  attention  and  serious  thought ; 
while  the  development  of  an  individual  is  a  phenom- 
enon of  such  universal  occurrence  that  it  is  taken  as 
a  matter  of  course  by  most  people,  something  so  evi- 
dent that  it  seems  to  require  no  explanation;  but 
familiarity  with  the  fact  of  development  does  not 
remove  the  mystery  which  lies  back  of  it,  though  it 
may  make  plain  many  of  the  processes  concerned. 
The  development  of  a  human  being,  of  a  personality, 
from  a  germ  cell  is  the  climax  of  all  wonders,  greater 
even  than  that  involved  in  the  evolution  of  a  species  or  in 
the  making  of  a  world." 

In  being  understood,  in  being  cared  for  and  nurtured 
in  body  and  mind,  in  being  well  bred  and  in  having  a 
clean,  wholesome  environment,  the  child  should  receive 
at  least  as  much  consideration  as  plant  or  animal. 


II. 

GENERAL  METHOD   OF   STUDYING 
BEHAVIOR  OF  THE  CHILD. 

Instead  of  discussing  hypothetical  children  we 
desire  to  study  and  to  try  to  interpret  real  children  by 
associating  with  them  and  watching  directly  their 
reactions  and  dispositions.  In  doing  this  we  must 
bear  in  mind  that  the  child,  like  other  living  creatures, 
is  susceptible  to  the  treatment  given  to  him.  If  he  is 
to  be  understood  by  another  he  must  receive  encourage- 
ment, must  be  respeoted  as  a  personality,  must  be 
treated  with  frankness  and  openness,  must  be  relied 
upon  implicitly  for  his  own  viewpoint.  Growing  chil- 
dren have  many  companions  and  playfellows,  but 
few  intimate  friends,  especially  among  adults.  The 
essential  prerequisite  for  understanding  and  helping 
the  child  lies  in  close,  sympathetic  friendship.  This 
does  not  imply  a  gushing,  overzealous  crowding  of  a 
superior  being  into  the  child's  affairs,  but  a  genuine 
interest  in  his  life  and  his  purposes  and  accomplish- 
ments. Probably  the  rarest  quality  in  adulthood  is 
this  power  to  become  an  unaffected  friend  of  a  child. 
The  difficulty  lies  in  our  own  self-centred  interests 
and  not  in  the  child. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  desirable  that  the  student 
of  child  life  should  know  something  of  the  method  of 
the  scientist.  Especially  important  is  the  disinterested 
application  of  all  the  intelligence  at  the  disposal  of 
the  student  to  the  problems  confronting  him  in  the 
life  of  the  child.     The  cold-blooded  analysis  of  the 


8  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

powers  of  the  child  has  some  value,  though  a  much 
more  limited  one,  for  teachers  than  that  of  a  more  inti- 
mate and  human  sort.  One  of  the  difficulties  of  many 
of  the  "tests"  used  on  children  is  the  failure  of  these 
to  take  into  account  the  child  as  a  whole.  In  the 
following  outline  much  more  emphasis  is  placed  on  a 
complete  sympathy  between  child  and  student  than 
on  the  merely  scientific  aspect  of  the  problem.  The 
fullest  cooperation  of  parents  and  teachers  must  be 
secured  before  undertaking  the  study  of  any  child. 
Children  who  have  been  " problems"  in  some  respects 
offer  opportunities  for  both  study  and  service,  but  the 
greater  emphasis  should  be  on  normal  growing  chil- 
dren. 

The  following  studies  are  not  to  be  taken  up  serially, 
but  are  to  serve  merely  as  topics  to  guide  the  analysis 
of  the  child's  reactions.  The  syllabus  is  made  to  cover 
ages  of  children  in  school.  Great  discrimination  is 
required  to  determine  where  particular  reactions 
belong  in  any  classification,  and  success  can  come 
only  after  practice  and  experimentation.  Since  the 
syllabus  is  only  a  guide,  topics  must  be  modified  to  fit 
each  individual  case.  Questions  relative  to  the  pos- 
session of  given  characteristics  should  be  answered 
positively,  rather  than  by  indicating  the  absence  of 
such  traits.  Be  sure  to  understand  through  reading 
and  study  the  exact  meaning  of  each  topic  before  under- 
taking to  work  with  it  on  the  child.  Keep  an  accur- 
ate diary  or  notebook  of  time  and  circumstances  of 
the  activities  of  the  child. 

Study  Outline. 
Throughout  the  study  observe  the  following  points: 

1.  Associate  with  the  child  at  regular  and  stated 
intervals. 

2.  Aim  to  make  an  intimate  friend  of  him. 


GENERAL   METHODS   OF   STUDYING   BEHAVIOR  9 

3.  Make  all  data  got  from  association  with  the  child 
incidental  to  acquaintance  with  his  individuality, 
ideals,  and  needs. 

4.  Reports  on  the  following  topics  are  to  be  filled 
out  only  after  having  secured  entire  confidence  of  child. 

5.  Each  topic  requires  special  treatment:  physical 
condition  requires  precise  study;  home  surroundings 
require  tact  and  human  sympathy;  outside  play  life 
requires  an  association  with  child  and  his  companions. 

6.  If  child  is  of  school  age,  reports  on  school  work, 
mental  characteristics,  learning  process,  movements, 
and  special  capacities  require  consultation  with  child's 
teacher  and  frequent  visits  to  his  school  room,  there- 
fore, select  a  child  giving  such  opportunities. 

7.  Condition,  acts  and  tendencies  must  be  compared 
with  those  of  other  children,  both  sexes,  all  ages. 

Suggestive  Reading. 

Claparede,  Experimental  pedagogy,  chapters  ii,  iii.     New  York:  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co.     1911. 
Clouston.     The  hygiene    of   the    mind,   chapters  x,  xi.     New  York: 

E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.     1907. 
Gesell.     The    normal    child  and   primary  education,     chapters  ii-v. 

Boston:  Ginn  &  Co. 
Kirkpatrick,    The  individual  in  the  making,  chapters  iii— xd.    Boston: 

Houghton,  Mifflin  Company. 
Partridge,  Outline  of  individual  study.     New  York:  The  Macmillan 

Co.     1910. 
Pyle,  The  examination  of  school  children.    New  York:  The  Macmillan 

Co.     1913. 
Raymont,  The  principles  of  education,  chapter  v.   London:  Longmans, 

Green  &  Co.     1913. 
Rusk,  Introduction  to  experimental  education,  chapters  i-iii.     London: 

Longmans,  Green  &  Co.     1912. 
Schulze,   Experimental   psychology  and  pedagogy.     New  York:    The 

Macmillan  Company.     1912. 
Terman,  The  hygiene  of  the  school  child.     Boston:  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Co.     1914. 
Warner,   The    study   of  children,     chapters  iv-vii.     New  York:  The 

Macmillan  Co.     1910. 
Whipple,  Manual  of  mental  and  physical  tests.     2  volumes.     Baltimore: 

Warwick  &  York.     1914. 


III. 

PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  CHILD. 

The  child's  physical  condition  plays  a  leading  part 
in  his  mental  and  moral  well-being  and  therefore  must 
be  carefully  looked  into  and  guarded.  The  student 
should  learn  to  detect  signs  of  bodily  imperfections 
and  be  able  to  suggest  help.  Wherever  a  suspicion  of 
serious  difficulty  exists  students  should  call  attention 
of  parents  to  such  cases  and  advise  consultation  with 
specialists.  Especial  notice  should  be  taken  of  condi- 
tions under  which  the  child  lives  as  to  health  and  nor- 
mal growth. 

Physical  growth  is  irregular  in  all  directions.  Dur- 
ing some  years  the  child  grows  rapidly  in  height  or 
weight,  some  years  he  grows  slowly.  Growth  is  not 
merely  a  change  in  size  of  body  or  parts  of  body,  but  a 
transformation  and  reorganization  of  the  relationships 
of  parts.  Legs  and  arms  grow  in  parts,  sometimes  the 
upper  parts  accelerate  and  sometimes  the  lower,  so 
that  arms  and  legs  are  changing  in  relative  length 
and  strength  of  parts.  Trunk  growth  in  length  and 
breadth  is  rhythmical,  first  in  one  direction  and  then 
in  another.  Bodily  organs  also  have  their  nascent 
stages  of  growth.  Heart  and  lungs  grow  so  irregularly 
as  to  make  child-life  somewhat  uncertain  and  precar- 
ious. During  a  rapidly  growing  period  the  child  re- 
quires different  treatment  from  what  he  does  during 
a  period  of  slow  growth.  Some  of  these  stages  of 
transition  have  been  called  " critical  periods"  and  it 
will  be  found  that  they  are  times  of  particularly  irreg- 
ular and  erratic  growth  of  different  parts  of  the  body. 

10 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS  11 

Learn  the  distinguishing  marks  of  each  stage  of  growth, 
and  study  the  conditions  best  adapted  to  meet  them. 
Note  carefully  whether  you  see  resemblances  or 
dissimilarities  between  the  physical  growth  and  make- 
up of  this  particular  individual  and  that  of  other 
children.  There  are  decided  differences  between  the 
maturity  of  children  of  the  same  age.  Chronological 
age  and  physical  and  mental  maturity  are  often  far 
apart.  As  a  rule  girls  are  more  precocious  than  boys 
so  that  what  the  former  can  do  the  latter  are  not  yet 
ready  to  do.  Height  and  weight  are  valuable  marks 
for  physical  maturity,  though  taken  alone  they  are 
not  sufficient  to  determine  the  maturity  of  the  child. 
Try  to  correlate  with  height  and  weight  of  body  the 
activities  of  the  child  in  order  to  determine  his  age. 

Report  on  Physical  Condition  of  the  Child. 

1.  Age 2.  Sex 

3.  Height  (Make  several  measurements  during  sea- 
son) standing 

4.  Height  sitting Relation  of 

sitting  to  standing 

5.  Weight  (Make  several  measurements  during  sea- 
son)  

6.  Compare  above  measurements  with  averages  in 
tables 

7.  Account  for  child's  position  in  relation  to  these 
averages 

8.  Proportion  and  symmetry  of  body — spinal  curva- 
ture, breadth  of  shoulders,  proportions  of  head,  neck, 
etc. 

9.  Defects  or  deformities 

10.  Make  accurate  test  for  eyes 


12  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

Note  for  defects  the  following:  Congested  and  in- 
flamed eyelids,  granulated  lids,  squinting,  frowning, 
poor  posture,  nervousness,  headaches,  manner  of  hold- 
ing book,  indistinct  vision,  poor  spelling  or  reading. 
Test  for  color  vision. 

11.  Test  hearing.  Use  whisper  and  watch  tests. 
Note  poor  spelling,  imperfect  speech,  earaches,  poor 
posture,  stupid  appearance,  slow  mentality,  peculiar- 
ities in  play  with  other  children. 

12.  Condition  of  teeth.  Note  decayed  teeth, 
absent  teeth,  crooked  or  dirty  teeth,  sore  or  swollen 
gums,  offensive  breath,  defects  of  speech,  poor  nutri- 
tion, pallor,  failure  to  use  brush  regularly. 

13.  Presence  of  adenoids.  Note  mouth  breath- 
ing, ear  trouble  and  deafness,  prominent  or  crooked 
teeth,  dull  expression  of  eyes,  underdeveloped  chin, 
flat  or  nasal  voice,  backward  mentality,  narrow  chest, 
nervousness. 

14.  Nervousness.  Note  presence  of  twitching  of 
parts  of  body,  poor  coordination  of  movements,  rest- 
lessness, stuttering  or  imperfect  articulation,  irritabil- 
ity, emotional  outbursts,  oversensibility,  if  shows 
fatigue  easily. 

15.  Character  of  nourishment  of  body:  Apply 
formula : 

arm  girth  x  100 
chest  girth 
Other  signs  of  good  or  poor  nourishment. 

16.  History  of  individual's  health 

17.  Note  condition  of  skin  and  hair 

18.  Note  evidences  of  comparative  physical  matur- 
ity  

19.  Give  full  description  of  general  physical  condi- 
tion and  appearance. 


physical  conditions  13 

Suggestive  Reading. 

Baldwin,  Physical  growth  and  school  progress.     Washington,  D.  C. : 

Government  Printing  Office.     1914. 
Bancroft,    The  posture  of  school  children.    See  bibliography.    New 

York:   The  Macmillan  Co.     1913. 
Bryant,  School  feeding,   chapter  x.     Philadelphia:    J.  B.  Lippincott 

Co.     1913. 
Child  study  investigations.     Chicago.     1900. 

Christopher,  Three  crises  in  child  life.     Child  Study  Mon.,  vol.  hi. 
Cornell,   Health  and  medical  inspection.     See  index.     Philadelphia: 

F.  A.  Davis  Co.     1912. 
Drummond,  Introduction  to  school  hygiene.     New  York:    Longmans, 

Green  &  Co.     1915. 
Groszman,  The  career  of  a  child,  chapter  iv.     Boston:   R.  G.  Badger. 
Hall,  Adolescence,  volume  i,  chapters  i-ii.     New  York:   Appleton  & 

Co.     1904. 
Harman,  Defects  of  vision,  chapter  viii  of  Kalynack's  Defective  children. 

New  York:   Wood  &  Co.     1915. 
Hoag,  Health  index  of  children.    San  Francisco:    Whitaker  &  Ray- 
Wiggins  Co.     1910. 
Love,   The  deaf  child,  chapter  ix  in  Kalynack's  Defective  children. 
Mead,  Height  and  weight  of  children  in  relation  to  general  intelligence. 

Ped.  Sem.     Sept.,  1914. 
Montessori,  Pedagogical  anthropology,  chapter  i.     New  York:   F.  A. 

Stokes  &  Co.     1913. 
Rowe,  The  physical  nature  of  the  child.    New  York:   The  Macmillan 

Co.     1914. 
Tanner,  The  child,  chapters  ii-iii.     Chicago:   Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 

1904. 
Terman,  The  hygiene  of  the  school  child.    See  various  chapters. 
Tyler,  Growth  and  education,  chapter  iv.     Boston:  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Co.     1907. 
Warner,  The  Study  of  Children. 


IV. 
HOME  CONDITIONS  OF  THE  CHILD. 

Trees,  flowers,  earth,  water,  animals,  hand  activ- 
ities, open  air  and  outdoor  occupations,  have  in  one 
form  or  another  always  been  vital  parts  of  man's  en- 
vironment, and  are,  therefore,  parts  of  the  heredity 
of  each  child.  They  are  essential  to  the  child  for  the 
awakening  of  the  potential  energies  of  his  nature  which 
lie  at  the  foundation  of  civilization  and  culture.  Only 
through  laying  this  foundation  can  the  child  come  to 
know  and  to  appreciate  the  things  that  he  meets  in 
the  complex,  artificial  environment  of  the  present  age. 

But  the  homes  of  children  in  the  city  are  likely  to 
be  places  adapted  only  to  shelter,  clothe,  and  feed  them. 
To  many  people  this  seems  wholly  sufficient.  Such 
persons  do  not  realize  how  barren  the  environment  of 
the  children  of  the  city  really  is  and  how  lacking  in 
the  material  that  makes  for  a  rich  and  full  experience 
with  life  in  its  elemental  forms.  Doubtless  this 
poverty  of  life  for  growing  children  is  due  to  no  fault 
of  the  homes  but  rather  to  city  conditions  which  have 
robbed  these  homes  of  occupations  and  surroundings 
in  which  children  had  part  and  have  cut  off  all  re- 
sources for  parental  direction  of  activities  and  inter- 
ests of  their  young.  As  it  now  is,  the  street  and  school 
occupy  most  of  the  time  of  the  young. 

In  order  to  be  of  service  to  the  child,  study  to  see 
how  far  the  home  strives  to  conserve  and  train 
him  in  his  work  and  play  life,  his  health  and  general 
welfare.  Specific  instances  of  care  for  these  matters 
or  failure  to  provide  the  best  conditions  must  be  noted. 
Try  to  see  and  estimate  the  problems  of  parents  in  a 

14 


HOME    CONDITIONS  15 

city  environment  and  ask  yourself  whether  more 
intelligent  civic  and  community  cooperation  is  not 
necessary  properly  to  safeguard  both  parents  and  chil- 
dren. Study  neighborhood  activities  to  see  how  far 
these  have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  child.  Are  there 
parent-teacher  associations  in  the  community  and 
what  problems  relating  to  children  have  they  under- 
taken? Is  there  any  effort  being  made  by  the  neigh- 
borhood to  control  places  of  amusement  for  children, 
such  as  parks,  shows,  and  other  activities?  Note 
whether  parents  make  it  a  point  to  take  their  children 
with  them  and  to  keep  in  touch  with  their  play  places 
and  haunts  and  the  companions  they  keep. 

In  understanding  the  child  one  must  know  something 
of  his  heredity.  It  is  not  necessary  to  pry  into  the 
family  history  in  any  objectionable  way,  but  merely 
to  find  out  the  main  influences  in  the  child's  history 
that  will  help  in  his  management  and  education.  His 
parents  and  grandparents  can  often  throw  much  light 
on  his  particular  case  and  help  in  interpreting  him. 
They  are  usually  not  only  ready  but  anxious  to  help 
in  such  matters.  If  the  child  possesses  striking 
peculiarities,  if  he  is  strong  or  weak,  it  is  desirable  to 
know  whether  this  is  a  matter  of  heredity  or  some- 
thing coming  from  environmental  influences.  It  will 
be  necessary  to  state  frankly  that  any  intelligent 
treatment  of  the  child  by  an  outsider  like  the  teacher 
is  dependent  upon  a  full  knowledge  of  the  history  of 
the  child. 

Study  Outline. 

1.  Location  of  home:  its  surroundings,  street,  com- 
munity, quiet  or  noisy,  other  buildings,  vacant  prop- 
erty, parks,  etc. 


16  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

2.  Kind  and  size  of  home:  house,  flat,  number  of 
rooms,  floor,  and  position  in  building,  yard,  garden, 
etc. 

3.  Nationality  or  race  of  parents 

4.  Language  used  at  home — vernacular,  cultivated 
or  uncultivated. 

5.  Occupations  of  parents 

6.  Approximate  amount  of  time  spent  daily  by 
parents  with  child. 

7.  Character  of  parents  and  attitude  towards  child 
— affectionate,  indulgent,  severe,  frank,  fair. 

8.  General  attitude  of  other  members  in  home 
towards  child — helpfulness,  teasing,  petting,  cooper- 
ation, subserviency,  nagging. 

9.  Health  of  parents  and  general  health  history. 

10.  Resemblances  or  differences  between  child  and 
parent 

11.  Approximate  ages  of  parents 

12.  Number  of  children  in  family,  order  of  birth, 
brothers  and  sisters,  their  ages,  and  resemblances 
among    them 

13.  Provisions  made  in  home  specifically  for 

(a)  Health  of  child — Note  bedroom,  its  size,  loca- 
tion, and  ventilation;  hours  of  sleep;  character  of  food; 
outdoor  life. 

(b)  Play  of  child — Note  play  room,  toys,  pets, 
companions  admitted  to  home  or  encouraged. 

(c)  Occupation  of  child — Note  chores  required  to 
be  done  regularly,  errands,  outside  work 

14.  Make  simple  dietaries  and  estimate  their  appli- 
cation to  this  child 

15.  Parents'  interest  in  school  life  of  child — co- 
operative, antagonistic,  careless  or  actively  concerned. 


HOME    CONDITIONS  17 

16.  Parents'  interest  in  future  of  child — occupation 
and  welfare. 

17.  Relation  of  home  to  places  of  amusement — 
theatres,  picture  shows — also  to  church  and  Sunday 
school 

Suggestive  Reading. 

Addams,  The  spirit  of  youth  and  the  city  streets.     New  York:  The  Mac- 

millan  Co.     1909. 
Allen,  Civics  and  health.     Boston:    Ginn  &  Co.     1909. 
Breckinridge  and  Abbott,  The  delinquent  child  and  the  home.     New 

York:    Charities.     1912. 
Bruce,    Psychology   and   parenthood,   chapter   i.     New   York:  Dodd, 

Mead  &  Co.     1915. 
Carlton,  Education  and  industrial  evolution.     New  York:   The  Mac- 

millan  Co.     1908. 
Coulter,   The  children  in  the  shadow.     New  York:    The  Macmillan 

Co.     1913. 
Davenport,  Heredity  and  eugenics.     New  York:   The  Macmillan  Co. 

1911. 
Davis,  Street-land.    Boston:   Small,  Maynard  &  Co. 
Davis,  Vocational  and  moral  guidance.     Boston:    Ginn  &  Co. 
Dutton,  Social  phases  of  education,  chapter  1.     New  York:  The  Mac- 
millan Co.     1899. 
Gilette,  Vocational  education.     New  York:   American  Book  Co. 
Gruenberg,    Your  child  of  today  and  tomorrow,  chapter  xiv.     New 

York:   The  Macmillan  Co.     1913. 
Hall,  Boy  life  in  a  Massachusetts  country  town  forty  years  ago,  pp. 

300-317  of  Aspects  of  childlife  and  education.     Boston:  Ginn  & 

Co.     1907. 
Hoag,  Health  index  of  children,  chapter  x. 
Holmes,  The  conservation  of  the  child.     Philadelphia:  J.  B.  Lippincott 

Co. 
King,  Social  aspects  of  education,  chapter  hi.     New  York:   The  Mac- 
millan Co.     1914. 
Mangold,  Child  problems.     New  York:   The  Macmillan  Co. 
Rusk,  Introduction  to  experimental  education,  pp.  29-31. 
Nearing,  The  solution  of  the  child  labor  problem.     New  York:   Moffat, 

Yard  &  Co.     1911. 
Schoff,   The  wayward   child,   chapters  iii-vi.     Indianapolis:    Bobbs- 

Merrill  Co.     1915. 
Spargo,  The  bitter  cry  of  the  children.     New  York:  The  Macmillan  Co. 

1906. 
Terman,  The  hygiene  of  the  school  child,  chapter  iv. 
Weeks,  The  people's  school.    Boston:   Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 


V. 
PLAYS  AND  GAMES  OF  THE  CHILD. 

It  has  been  said  that  play  is  the  most  serious  busi- 
ness of  childhood.  Begin  to  look  at  the  child's  play- 
not  as  mere  fun  or  superficial  demand  for  pleasure, 
but  as  an  innate  requirement  of  the  healthy  young  for 
creative,  active  lives.  Growth,  physically  and  men- 
tally, morally  and  socially,  depends  primarily  on 
play.  For  this  reason  play  deserves  most  careful 
study.  Notice  that  early  play  has  little  external  organ- 
ization in  it,  but  at  the  same  time  contains  clear  evi- 
dence of  being  orderly  and  controlled  by  the  demands 
of  the  child's  growing  nature.  By  degrees  play  takes 
on  the  form  of  the  game,  having  ends  and  explicit  rules 
to  secure  such  ends.  The  plays  of  children  owe  their 
content  largely  to  surroundings  and  to  companion- 
ship, but  their  form  reveals  the  growth  and  matur- 
ity of  the  children.  For  example,  two  children  of 
different  ages  may  play  " school"  or  "ball,"  but  each 
plays  a  different  kind  of  game  because  of  his  difference 
in  maturity  of  conceptions  and  standards.  For  the 
time  being  children  become  what  they  play:  Indian, 
fireman,  policeman,  each  contains  elements  of  chil- 
dren's natures  projected  into  objective  form,  and  are 
therefore  not  mere  imitations  of  something  outside  of 
themselves.  In  so  far  as  they  can  be  encouraged  thus 
to  project  themselves  in  play  form,  children  can  be 
controlled  satisfactorily  through  the  objects  they 
put  themselves  into  in  play.  People  often  insist  that 
imitation  explains  the  character  of  the  play  of  chil- 
dren, while,  as  matter  of  fact,  they  might  better  say 

18 


PLAYS   AND   GAMES  19 

that  children  create  the  characters  and  parts  they 
portray  in  their  actions.  Whatever  the  relation  of 
imitation  to  play,  this  creativeness  is  the  most  sig- 
nificant part  of  it  and  must  be  studied  very  carefully 
if  one  is  to  see  the  nature  and  needs  of  the  individual 
child.  Socializing  influences  of  play  in  this  study  will 
appear  and  should  be  watched  and  classified. 

Your  best  understanding  of  children  will  come  from 
playing  with  them,  from  entering  into  their  games, 
from  helping  them  plan  games,  and  from  catching 
their  spirit  as  they  abandon  themselves  in  play.  Be 
sure  to  see  as  far  as  possible  the  points  of  view  which 
actuate  them  in  their  activities.  Most  of  the 
" troubles"  of  children  come  from  their  attempts  to 
carry  out  their  own  legitimate  purposes  and  plans 
which  are  misunderstood  and  mistaken  for  "mis- 
chief" by  older  persons.  Insight  into  their  lives  got 
through  study  of  play  will  often  restrain  our  interfer- 
ence with  their  plans  and  help  us  to  guide  them  into 
safe  channels. 

Report  on  Plays  and  Games  of  the  Child. 

1.  What  the  child  plays 

2.  Describe  in  detail  manner  of  playing — what  he 
sees  and  tries  to  make  his  own  through  his  play .... 

3.  Individual  or  group  plays  and  games.  Dis- 
tinguish between  unorganized  play  of  younger  chil- 
dren and  organized  games  of  older  ones. 

4.  Loyalty  to  group  interests — when  it  arises,  how 
it  shows  itself,  and  its  effects  on  attitude  of  children 
toward  each  other 

5.  Leadership  in  play.  The  being  "it"  of  younger 
children  must  be  distinguished  from  leadership  in 
older    children 


20  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

6.  Seasonal    games 

7.  Periodic  interests  and  fads  in  play 

8.  Differences  shown  by  child  in  directed  and  un- 
directed play 

9.  Where  and  when  child  plays — character  of  place 
as  to  appropriateness  for  play,  quietness  and  cleanli- 
ness, etc. 

10.  Possession  of  toys  and  implements  for  play .... 

11.  Relate  play  of  child  if  possible  to 

(a)  Physical  growth  as  shown  in  first  study. 

(b)  Home  life  and  attitude  of  elders  towards  play. 

12.  Note  mentality  shown  by  child  in  plans  and 
execution  of  them:  imagery,  emotions,  concentration, 
and  tenacity 

13.  Plan  play  or  game  for  child  and  note  carefully 

(a)  Mental  alertness — as  in  inventions  or  puzzles  . . 

(b)  Physical  ability — as  in  ball  throwing 

(c)  Cooperation — as  in  ball  game 

Suggestive  Reading. 

Angell,  Play.    Boston:    Little,  Brown  &  Co.     1910. 
Breckinridge  and  Abbott,  The  delinquent  child  and  the  home,  chap- 
ter ix. 
Curtiss,  Education  through  play.     New  York:    The  Macmillan  Co. 

1915. 
Dewey,  Schools  of  tomorrow,  chapter  v.     New  York:    E.  P.  Dutton 

&  Co. 
Dresslar,  School  hygiene,  chapter  ii.     New  York:  The  Macmillan  Co. 

1913. 
Groos,   The   play  of  man.     New  York:  Appleton.     1908.     See  alao 

The  play  of  animals  by  same  author. 
Gulick,  Psychological,  pedagogical,  and  religious  aspect  of  group  games. 

Ped.  Sem.,  vi,  135-151. 
Holmes,   Principles  of  character  making,  chapter  vii.     Philadelphia, 

J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.  1913. 
Johnston,  Education  by  plays  and  games.     Boston:    Ginn  &  Co. 
Lee,  Play  in  education.     New  York:    The  Macmillan  Co.     1915. 
Scott,  Social  education.     Boston:    Ginn  &  Co.     1908. 
Tanner,  The  child,  chapter  xix.     See  bibliography.     Chicago:   Rand, 

McNally.     1904. 


VI. 

INSTINCTIVE  ACTIVITIES  OF  THE  CHILD. 

Instinctive  actions  are  the  most  numerous  and  most 
difficult  as  well  as  the  most  important  manifestations 
of  growing  children.  Just  because  they  are  numer- 
ous and  spontaneous,  they  are  so  fleeting,  so  transi- 
tory, and  so  intimate  a  part  of  life  that  they  are  over- 
looked or  ignored.  It  is  practically  impossible  to 
devise  a  test  or  set  of  tests  to  bring  them  under  exact 
control,  so  that  much  of  the  information  about  them  will 
necessarily  be  what  is  caught  at  random  by  close 
association  with  the  child.  Nearly  all  writers  group 
too  many  activities  under  the  heads  of  what  they  call 
an  instinct.  For  example,  play  is  usually  given  as 
an  instinct.  Play  is  instinctive,  but  is  better  regarded 
as  activity  based  on  instincts  or  as  the  form  which 
all  instincts  take  when  they  show  themselves.  What 
the  child  plays  presents  the  instinctive  element  rather 
than  the  fact  of  playing  being  an  instinct.  *In  the 
same  way,  .students  should  try  to  discriminate  the 
characteristic  stages  and  elements  in  curiosity,  imita- 
tion, socialinstincts,  rather  than  to  merely  name  these 
as  so  many  instincts.  Imitation,  for  example,  is 
always  relative  to  the  child's  stage  of  growth  and  has 
now  one  meaning  and  now  another.  Looking  at 
instincts  from  the  point  of  view  of  their  multiplicity, 
their  transitoriness,  and  their  intricacy,  we  must  fol- 
low the  child  under  all  circumstances  to  find  them. 
Furthermore,  instinctive  and  spontaneous  tendencies 
soon  become  mixed  with  experience — the  older  the 
child  becomes,  the  less  purely  spontaneous  and  in- 

21 


22  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN    INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

stinctive  are  his  acts  found  to  be.  It  is  likely  that 
instinctive  manifestations  follow  the  physical  changes 
of  the  child ;  therefore,  see  if  you  can  explain  on  grounds 
of  bodily  growth  the  appearance  of  the  most  striking 
of  these  native  tendencies  to  act. 

Looked  at  from  the  point  of  view  of  their  outlet, 
instinctive  actions  demand  natural  conditions  and 
natural  environments  to  guide  them.  Raised  in  a 
wholly  artificial  environment,  children  miss  their 
most  significant  heritage  of  nature  and  of  activities 
in  nature  and,  at  the  same  time,  lose  their  only  chance 
to  lay  a  foundation  of  solid  experience  on  which  to 
build  the  superstructure  of  ideas  and  culture.  Free- 
dom to  act  in  instinctive  ways  is  essential  to  both 
physical  and  mental  growth.  Control  of  children 
comes  naturally  through  the  demands  made  upon 
them  to  react  to  the  world  in  which  they  find  themselves, 
so  that  we  always  have  the  power  to  use  and  direct 
their  native  instinctive  responses  in  fortunate  or 
unfortunate  directions.  The  playground,  gymna- 
sium, the  school  garden,  the  shop  and  laboratory  are 
places  where  these  demands  to  act  have  their  proper 
fulfillment  and  their  proper  direction.  Watch  the 
child  in  these  places  for  his  spontaneous  reactions. 

Study  Outline. 

1.  Name  all  spontaneous  activities  which  you  ob- 
serve in  child — watch  him  play,  alone  and  with  others, 
keep  track  of  his  likes  and  his  aversions. 

2.  Describe  in  full  the  manner  in  which  such  activ- 
ities reveal  themselves,  showing  when  and  under 
what  circumstances. 

3.  Distinguish  between  instincts  and  interests. 
(The  latter   are   derived   from  personal   experience.) 


INSTINCTIVE   ACTIVITIES  23 

Note  all  such  activities  separately.     Note  transitions 
from  instincts  to  interests. 

4.  Study  and  classify  objects  which  child  seeks,  or 
craves,  or  creates — such  as  places  of  nature,  pets, 
companions,  weapons,  etc. 

5.  Relate  instinctive  activities  to  growth,  as  shown 
in  study  I. 

6.  Distinguish  between  instincts  of  boys  and  girls 
— whether  they  show  identical  traits,  are  equally 
strong  and  lead  to  same  ends. 

7.  Note  all  changes  in  spontaneous  activities  in 
child  while  you  are  studying  him — how  long  they 
persist,  whether  they  die  or  go  into  some  other  form, 
what  effects  they  leave  on  character. 

8.  Relation  of  child's  instincts  to  school  work — help 
or  hindrance. 

9.  Relation  of  instincts  to  discipline  of  child — un- 
ruly, submissive,  quiet,  boisterous,  open  or  secretive. 

10.  Devise  situations  or  experiments  to  bring  out 
or  modify  instincts. 

Suggestive  Reading. 

Acher,  Spontaneous  constructions  and  primitive  activities  of  children 

analogous  to  those  of  primitive  man.     Am.  Jour.  Psy.,  Jan., 

1910. 
Angell,  Psychology,  chapters  xv  and  xvi.     New  York:    Henry  Holt 

Co.     4  ed.     1908. 
Bolton,  Principles  of  education,  chapter  viii.     New  York:    Charles 

Scribner's  Sons.     1911. 
Burk,  The  collecting  instinct.     Ped.  Sem.  viii,  pp.  179-207.     Also  in 

Aspects  of  .child  life  and  education,  pp.  205-240. 
Colvin  and  Bagley,  Human  behavior,  chapters  viii,  ix,  x.     New  York: 

The  Macmillan  Co.     1913. 
Gesell,  The  normal  child  and  primary  education,  chapter  vi.     Boston: 

Ginn  &  Co. 
Holmes,    Principles   of  character  making,    chapter   v.     Philadelphia: 

J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.     1913. 
James,  Psychology,  vol.  ii,  chapter  xxiv.     New  York:  Henry  Holt  &  Co. 
Lee,  Play  in  education,  chapters  ii-iv.     New  York:    The  Macmillan 

Co.     1915. 


24  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

Loeb,  Comparative  physiology  of  brain,  chapter  xiii.     New  York.     1900. 

MacDougall,  Social  psychology.     Boston.     Luce  &  Co.     1908. 

McManis,  Children's  instincts.     Educ.  Bi-Mon.,  Feb.,  April,  1913. 

Morgan,  Instinct  and  experience,  chapters  i-ii.  New  York:  The 
Macmillan  Co.     1912. 

Myers,  Morgan,  Carr,  Stuart,  MacDougall,  Instinct  and  intel- 
ligence.    British  Jour.  Psych.,  iii,  p.  109  ff. 

Parmelee,  The  science  of  human  behavior,  chapters  xi,  xii,  xiii.  New 
York:  The  Macmillan  Co.     1913. 

Partridge,  Outline  of  individual  study,  chapter  ix. 

Pyle,  The  outline  of  educational  psychology,  chapters  iv-ix.  Balti- 
more:  Warwick  &  York.     1911. 

Swift,  Youth  and  the  race,  chapter  i.  New  York:  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons.     1912. 

Tanner,  The  child,  chapter  xiii.     See  bibliography. 

Thorndike,  The  original  nature  of  man.  New  York:  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  Univ.     1913. 

Veblen,  The  instinct  of  workmanship,  chapter  i.  New  York:  The 
Macmillan  Co.     1914. 


VII. 

OUTSIDE    INTERESTS   AND    ACTIVITIES    OF 
THE  CHILD. 

In  play  and  instincts  we  have  studied  inner  strivings 
and  characteristic  native  reactions,  and  we  need  now 
to  direct  our  attention  to  the  world  outside  of  these 
tendencies,  to  the  forces  which  give  them  form  and  per- 
manency. Companionship,  play  places,  regular  haunts, 
associations,  and  childish  occupations  determine  the 
kinds  of  experiences  and  habits  which  life  will  fix  upon 
the  •  growing  child.  Whether  the  boy  becomes  thief 
or  honest  man  depends  mainly  upon  slight  variations 
in  direction  of  his  native  demands  determined  by 
outside  conditions  and  influences.  Home  surround- 
ings, as  already  noted,  determine  for  the  most  part 
these  matters  of  companionship  and  employment. 
There  is  need,  however,  for  grouping  under  a  separate 
head  all  the  associations  and  relations  of  the  child. 
Begin  your  study  with  his  interest  in  his  companions 
and  find  out  all  you  can  of  them.  Get  in  on  as  many 
of  their  mutual  sympathies  and  secrets  as  you  can 
without  violating  his  confidence.  (By  way  of  cau- 
tion, remember  that  if  you  keep  friendship  between 
yourself  and  the  child  uppermost,  you  will  need  to 
respect  most  fully  his  rights  in  such  matters  as  com- 
panionship ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  the  closer  and  more 
frank  and  honest  you  are  with  him,  the  more  valuable 
will  be  your  insight  into  his  realm  of  confidences  and 
intimacies.  He  will  quite  readily  discuss  important 
matters  with  people  he  trusts.)  Study  too  his  treas- 
ures, his  creations,  his  plans,  and  any  phase  of  his  life 
which  he  considers  important. 

25 


26  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

In  groups  or  gangs  you  will  find  the  most  vital 
influences  in  the  character  of  the  growing  child. 
Strive  to  know  the  group  as  an  organization.  Study- 
also  the  efforts  being  made  in  various  quarters  to 
control  organizations  such  as  Boy  Scouts  or  Camp- 
fire  Girls.  Loyalty  to  group  interests  is  to  be  highly 
prized  and  not  violated  by  an  outsider,  therefore,  use 
great  care  in  dealing  with  the  group.  Guidance  of 
the  child  will  be  most  effective  through  guidance  of 
the  group  to  which  he  belongs.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  understand  the  kind  of  group  you  are 
dealing  with,  the  place  of  meeting,  the  aims,  and  the 
standards  which  control  it.  If  one  can  provide  all  of 
these  things  for  the  group,  one  can  readily  manage 
the  individual  child. 

Next  to  control  of  the  group  comes  the  determina- 
tion of  the  child's  reading.  Select  stories  that  have 
the  wholesome  element  of  adventure  necessary  for 
forming  the  character  of  growing  boys  and  girls. 

Study  Outline. 

1.  Companionship  of  child:  adults,  and  children; 
playmates;  chums,  their  ages,  sex,  and  character. 
Distinguish  between  social  relationships  of  younger 
and  older  children.  Watch  effects  of  company  on 
child.  Is  he  more  contented  alone  or  must  he  have 
companions? 

2.  Play  groups,  gangs,  or  clubs:  study  bonds  unit- 
ing the  group;  distinguish  between  being  in  a  group 
and  being  a  part  of  a  group. 

3.  Numbers  of  children  in  groups,  places  and  times 
of  meeting,  activities  carried  on  by  them,  cosmopolitan 
or  exclusive. 

4.  Secrets,  signs  and  formulae  of  groups.  (These 
belong  to  older  children.) 


OUTSIDE    INTERESTS  27 

5.  Work:  motives  back  of, — pay,  pleasure,  compe- 
tition, regular  or  occasional,  kinds  of  work,  chores, 
selling  papers,  or  making  things. 

6.  Workshop  and  tools — inventions  and  objects 
constructed. 

7.  Care  for  garden,  animals,  plants  or  pets  and 
attitude  toward  job. 

8.  Care  for  room,  decoration,  and  property  or 
collections. 

9.  Trips  or  excursions,  alone  or  under  direction. 

10.  Outside  reading:  classify  and  give  character  of 
material  read. 

11.  Consult  parent,  teacher,  and  child  on  points 
relating  to  outside  interests  and  activities. 

12.  Visit  social  center  and  find  how  to  provide  for 
children  in  city. 

Suggestive  Reading. 

Addams,  The  spirit  of  youth  and  the  city  streets. 

Bernheimer  and  Cohen,  Boys'  clubs.  New  York:  The  Baker  & 
Taylor  Co.     1914. 

Buck,  Boys'  self-governing  clubs.  New  York:  The  Macmillan  Co. 
1912. 

Forbtjsh,  The  boy  problem.     Boston:    The  Pilgrim  Press.     1901. 

George,  The  junior  republic.     New  York:   D.  Appleton  &  Co.     1912. 

Gruenberg,  Your  child  of  today  and  tomorrow,  chapter  x.  Philadel- 
phia:  J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.     1913. 

Hall,  The  story  of  a  sand  pile.  In  Aspects  of  child  life  and  education, 
pp.  142-156.     Boston:    Ginn  &  Co.     1907. 

Hall,  Boy  life  in  a  Massachusetts  country  town  forty  years  ago.  In 
Aspects  of  child  life  and  education,  pp.  300-322. 

Hoban,  The  city  street,  pp.  451-460.  In  The  child  in  the  city.  Chicago. 
1912. 

King,  Social  aspects  of  education,  chapter  xiv.  New  York:  The  Mac- 
millan Co.     1914. 

Lindsay,  The  beast,  chapters  vi  and  viii.  New  York:  Doubleday, 
Page  &  Co. 

Puffer,  The  boy  and  his  gang.     Boston:  Houghton,  Mifflin  Co.     1912. 

Reeder,  How  two  hundred  children  live  and  learn.     New  York.     1909. 

Scott,  Social  education.     Boston:    Ginn  &  Co.     1908. 


VIII. 

SCHOOL  LIFE  OF  THE  CHILD. 

Since  the  school  has  come  to  occupy  as  important  a 
part  of  childhood  as  it  does  in  the  modern  city,  you 
should  endeavor  to  see  your  particular  child  at  work 
among  others  in  the  school  room  if  you  wish  to  under- 
stand him  in  all  of  his  relations.  Make  frequent  visits 
to  his  room  during  the  year.  Ask  his  teacher  about 
him;  get  his  standing  as  she  judges  him.  Find  out 
the  condition  of  the  school  and  neighborhood.  Get 
his  estimate  of  the  school,  the  teacher,  his  fellows. 
Estimate  the  effects  of  his  physical  conditions  and 
his  home  life  upon  his  school  work  and  his  attitude 
towards  it.  Children  usually  soon  come  to  have  a 
strictly  conventional  attitude  towards  the  work  of  the 
school;  they  expect  to  pass  or  fail  in  accordance  with 
their  previous  experiences;  they  like  their  teachers  or 
dislike  them;  they  pursue  studies  as  these  are  re- 
quired of  them  and  solve  problems  set  by  the  teacher. 
When  this  attitude  is  carried  for  any  length  of  time, 
children  become  apathetic  regarding  going  to  school, 
or  they  become  actively  opposed  to  the  entire  matter. 
Note  carefully  in  this  particular  whether  initiative  is 
fostered  and  cultivated.  Find  out  the  work  liked  best 
and  try  to  determine  what  it  is  that  commends  this 
work  to  the  child.  Note  whether  school  life  means 
growth  in  bodily  power,  in  ability  to  judge  in  prac- 
tical situations,  and  in  moral  stamina.  Is  the  school 
encouraging  this  child  to  form  definite  plans  for  his 
own  future  and  does  he  work  in  school  to  satisfy 
this  ambition?  It  is  desirable  to  know  how  he  spends 
his  time  out  of  school  in  studying   school  subjects, 

28 


SCHOOL   LIFE  29 

whether  he  shows  zeal  and  energy  in   this  outside 
work  or  whether  it  is  a  bore  to  him. 

After  carefully  studying  the  methods  used  in  test- 
ing school  subjects  try  some  one  of  these  on  the  work 
of  the  child.  Grade  his  work  and  compare  your 
grading  with  that  of  his  teacher  on  this  particular 
line  of  work.  Do  you  think  that  the  school  is  reach- 
ing the  best  there  is  in  this  child?  If  not,  find  out  the 
reason  for  the  difficulty  and  try  to  remedy  it.  If  he 
is  doing  well  in  school,  study  to  determine  the  ele- 
ments of  success.  Try  to  see  the  school  through  the 
eyes  of  this  particular  child. 

Report  on  School  Life. 

1.  Name  and  size  of  school 

2.  Location  of  school  and  character  of  surrounding 
community:  quiet,  noisy,  car  lines,  business  districts 
or  residence  section,  etc. 

3.  His  grade  in  school 

4.  Number  of  children  in  grade 

In  school 

5.  Teacher  and  her  attitude  towards  child — her 
interest  in  him,  her  knowledge  of  his  interests,  nature, 
condition,  and  what  she  says  of  his  work. 

6.  Attitude  of  child  to  school,  companions,  and 
teacher — is  he  happy  in  his  school  relations? 

7.  Subject  in  which  best  or  poorest  by  teacher's 
report  and  his  own  report. 

8.  Any  failures Length  of  time  in  grades 

In  various  schools. 

9.  Regularity  of  attendance — explanation  of  irregu- 
larities, health,  etc. 

10.  Influence,  if  any,  of  outside  interests  on  school 
work. 

11.  Child's  ambition  or  desire  for  school,  or  his 
aversion  for  it. 


30  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

12.  Character  of  school  room 

(a)  Heating Study  and  test 

(b)  Lighting Source  and  amount 

(c)  Ventilation Test 

(d)  Equipment:  seats — does  his  properly  fit  him? 
Decorations,  plants,  pets — part  he  has  in  these  things. 

13.  Facilities  in  school  for  play— gymnasium,  play 
ground,  swimming-pool;  luncheons,  cooking  and  sew- 
ing departments;  shops,  etc. 

14.  Tests  for  school  subjects:  find  out  some  prac- 
tical test  for  his  ability  in  a  school  subject— reading, 
rate  and  understanding,  tests,  arithmetic,  spelling,  pen- 
manship, composition. 

Suggestive  Reading. 

Bagley,  School  discipline,  chapter  xiii.  New  York:  The  Macmillan 
Co.     1914. 

Baldwin,  Standardization.  Educ.  Bi-Mon.,  June,  1915.  See  bibli- 
ography. 

Cook,  The  child  and  his  spelling.  Indianapolis :  Bobbs-Merrill  Co. 
1914. 

Courtis,  Tests  in  arithmetic  and  reading. 

Courtis,  Measurements  of  growth  and  efficiency  in  arithmetic.  El.  Sch. 
Tr.,  x:  55-74,  177-199;  xi:  171-185,  350-370,  528-539;  xii: 
172-179. 

Damson,  Helping  school  children.   New  York:   Harper  &  Bros.    1912. 

Dewey,  School  and  society.     Chicago.     The  Univ.  of  Chi.     1900. 

Dresslar,  School  hygiene,  chapters  iv-xiv.  New  York:  The  Mac- 
millan Co.     1913. 

Gesell,  The  normal  child  and  primary  education,  pp.  125-256. 

Hall,  Educational  problems.  2  vols.  New  York:  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
1911. 

King,  Social  aspects  of  education,  chapter  xv. 

Manuel,  The  use  of  an  objective  scale  for  grading  handwriting.  El. 
Sch.  Jour.,  Jan.,  1915. 

Scott,  Social  education,  chapters  i,  ii,  hi,  iv. 

Starch,  The  measurement  of  efficiency  in  reading,  writing,  spelling, 
and  English.     Madison,  Wis. :  The  Univ.  Book  Store.     1914. 

Terman,  Hygiene  of  the  school  child. 

Wallin,  Spelling  efficiency  in  relation  to  age,  grade,  and  sex,  and  the 
question  of  transfer.     Baltimore:    Warwick    &  York,  Inc. 

Whipple,  Manual  of  menial  and  physical  tests. 

Young,  Isolation  in  the  school,  pp.  13-44.  Chicago:  The  Univ.  of 
Chicago.     1901. 


IX. 

MENTAL   CHARACTERISTICS   AND   DISPOSI- 
TION OF  THE  CHILD. 

Responses  of  the  child  which  involve  feeling,  im- 
agery, inferences,  generalizations,  decisions,  and  choices 
should  be  noted  and  recorded  carefully.  Watch  for 
marks  of  disposition,  mood,  and  temperament  in  the 
child's  attitude  towards  others.  Classify  all  such 
observations  and  try  to  interpret  their  underlying 
causes.  In  connection  with  all  of  his  work  try  to  see 
how  far  he  is  actuated  by  ideas  and  mental  consider- 
ations explicitly  worked  out.  Test  the  child's  mem- 
ory, his  information,  and  also  his  power  to  meet  new 
conditions.  Be  sure  to  distinguish  between  the  abil- 
ity to  remember  and  the  ability  to  solve  new  problems. 
Puzzles  in  the  form  of  games  will  serve  as  tests  for 
both  of  these  abilities.  The  child's  memory  for  arith- 
metic facts  can  be  set  over  against  his  power  to  solve 
new  problems.  Study  carefully  every  mark  of  the 
child's  emotional  nature,  his  feeling  for  objects,  his 
enthusiasms  and  his  pet  notions. 

In  studying  the  mental  characteristics  of  children 
it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  relations  between  these 
characteristics  and  their  physical  conditions,  their 
home  life,  and  training,  their  plays  and  games,  and 
their  experiences  in  school.  Physical  conditions  are 
of  the  utmost  importance  in  judging  mental  capacity 
and  peculiarities.  Children  with  well  nourished  bodies, 
with  happy,  open  lives,  have  great  advantage  over 
children  in  whom  these  are  wanting.  Work  out  as 
fully  as  possible  all  the  connections  you  can  between 
the  outside  life  of  the  child  and  his  ability  to  think. 

31 


32  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

The  mental  tests  usually  given  are  satisfactory  in 
standardizing  the  mental  powers  of  the  child  only  as 
they  are  taken  in  connection  with  a  knowledge  of  him 
in  all  his  relations.  Some  of  these  tests  are  mainly 
verbal  and  miss  most  of  the  important  manifestations 
of  mental  power.  All  highly  developed  tests  are  valu- 
able only  in  the  hands  of  trained  experimenters,  and 
for  that  reason  should  be  used  only  tentatively  by 
observers  not  so  trained. 

Study  Outline. 

1.  Classify  as  bright,  witty,  clever,  dull,  inventive 
and  original,  or  lacking  in  these  qualities :  give  concrete 
material  to  show  your  classification. 

2.  Emotional  character:  easily  stirred  or  insensitive, 
sympathetic. 

3.  Give  several  examples  of  emotional  outbursts, 
such  as  anger,  joy,  sorrow. 

4.  Bashful,  timid,  bold. 

5.  Excitable,  or  staid  and  phlegmatic. 

6.  Easily  led,  suggestible,  or  independent  and  self- 
reliant. 

7.  Sociable,  confiding,  or  exclusive  and  indifferent. 

8.  Domineering  and  bullying  with  others,  or  meek 
and  submissive. 

9.  Headstrong  and  opinionated,  or  teachable. 

10.  Persevering  or  fickle  in  undertakings  and  inter- 
ests. 

11.  Strong  likes  and  dislikes  for  persons  and  things. 

12.  As  in  previous  study — find  rating  in  class  at 
school  on  above  points. 

13.  Compare  for  maturity  of  ideas  and  independ- 
ence with  other  children. 


MENTAL   CHARACTERISTICS  33 

14.  Relate   mental   characteristics   and   disposition 
to  previous  studies. 

15.  Find  out  his  ideals  and  plans  when  he  grows  up. 

16.  Make  mental  tests:    use  as  many  tests  as  you 
can  to  determine  the  age  and  maturity  of  child. 

Suggestive  Reading. 

Barnes,  Studies  in  education.    First  and  second  series.     Philadelphia: 

Barnes.     1902. 
Binet-Simon,  A  method  of  measuring  the  development  of  the  intelligence 

of  young  children.     Town.     Lincoln,  Illinois.     1913. 
Bruce,  Psychology  and  -parenthood,  chapter  viii.     New  York:    Dodd, 

Mead  &  Co.     1915. 
ClaparEde,  Experimental  pedagogy,  pp.  169-204. 
Dewey,    Mental    development.     Vol.    IV.     Transactions    of    Illinois 

Society  for  child  study. 
Hall,  Contents  of  children's  minds  on  entering  school.     In  Aspects  of 

child  life  and  education,  chapter  i. 
Gruenberg,  Your  child  today  and  tomorrow,  chapters  iii,  viii,  xi. 
Holmes,  School  organization  and  the  individual  child,  pp.  88-123;  154- 

178.     Worcester,  Mass.     1912. 
Kirkpatrick,  The  individual  in  the  making,  chapters  v-viii.     Boston: 

Houghton,  Mifflin  Co. 
Montessori,  The  Montessori  method,  chapter  v.     New  York:"~Stokes, 

1912. 
Partridge,  Outline  of  individual  study,  pp.  103-127. 
Pyle,  The  examination  of  school  children. 
Rusk,  The  introduction  to  experimental  education,  chapters  iv,  v,  vi,  vii, 

viii. 
Stern,    The    psychological    method    of   testing   intelligence.    Baltimore. 

Warwick  &  York.     1914.     See  bibliography. 
Sully,  Studies  in  childhood.     New  York:   Appleton  &  Co.     1908. 
Swift,  Mind  in  the  making,   chapter  iii.     New  York:    Charles  Scrib- 

ner's  Sons.     1908. 
Terman  and  Childs,  A  tentative  revision  and  extension  of  the  Binet- 
Simon    measuring    scale    of   intelligence.     Jour.    Ed.    Psych., 

Feb.,  1912. 
Thorndike,    Theory  of  social  and  mental  measurement.     New  York: 

Teachers  College.     1913. 
Whipple,  Manual  of  mental  and  physical  tests.     Bibliography. 


X. 

LEARNING  PROCESS  OF  THE  CHILD. 

The  ability  of  the  child  to  learn  can  be  adequately 
judged  only  after  careful  study  and  investigation.  Of 
course,  rough  estimates  can  always  be  made  and 
often  these  are  the  basis  of  promotion  in  school. 
Ultimately,  what  the  person  can  do  must  be  the  criter- 
ion of  his  learning  ability.  We  should  be  able,  how- 
ever, to  find  out  definitely  his  best  capacity  under  the 
very  best  and  most  exact  conditions  that  can  be  pro- 
vided. In  finding  out  this  capacity  the  student  will 
be  required  to  work  regularly  and  persistently  with 
the  child  along  some  line  of  learning.  The  general 
nature  of  the  learning  process  will  be  studied  in  con- 
nection with  this  work  and  a  comparison  of  the  child's 
work  with  that  of  others  will  be  made.  Much  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  individual  peculiarities  in  learn- 
ing because  each  one  has  his  own  individual  method 
and  power.  It  is  desirable  to  plan  a  piece  of  work 
especially  for  testing  the  learning  power  of  the  child. 
Since  great  differences  in  learning  ability  depend 
upon  previous  training  and  experiences,  investigation 
should  be  directed  to  habits  of  learning  and  training 
along  specific  fines  of  study.  Help  should  be  offered 
him  with  regard  to  economical  methods  of  learning 
and  incentives  for  acquiring  good  methods  of  study. 
Modes  of  attacking  work,  developing  plans  for  prose- 
cuting the  task,  habits  of  looking  for  essentials  and 
omitting  non-essentials,  systematizing  the  results  as 
rapidly  as  possible,  connecting  results  and  methods 
with  previous  experiences  are  some  of  the  steps  to  be 
taught  in  economical  learning. 

34 


LEARNING  PROCESS  OF  THE  CHILD        35 

Learning  ability  varies  with  age  and  maturity,  though 
the  curve  of  ability  seems  to  fluctuate  rather  than  to 
increase  gradually.  Power  of  concentration,  resistance 
to  fatigue,  adaptability  to  conditions,  suggestibility, 
and  persistence  in  attack,  are  dependent  in  large 
measure  on  the  child's  stage  of  growth.  In  prepar- 
ing tasks  for  investigating  the  learning  process,  age, 
therefore,  must  enter  into  the  selection  of  the  materials 
and  the  standards  applied  to  results.  Young  children 
are  not  only  interested  in  things  of  a  different  nature 
from  what  older  ones  are,  but  are  also  capable  of 
learning  different  subjects  at  different  rates.  "  Strike 
while  the  iron  is  hot"  is  particularly  applicable  to  the 
kind  of  task  set  for  the  individual  child.  Much  time 
and  energy  are  often  lost  by  attempting  to  force  learn- 
ing upon  the  child  for  which  he  is  not  ready.  Like- 
wise the  child  doubtless  falls  far  short,  at  times,  of 
reaching  his  full  capabilities  in  learning. 

Study  Outline. 

1.  Note  whether  child  learns  new  things  easily  or 
with  difficulty. 

2.  How  well  he  remembers  the  things  learned. 

3.  Note  imitation  of  others  in  learning;  character- 
ize imitations. 

4.  How  far  he  is  suggestible  and  teachable. 

5.  His  willingness  to  try  and  his  persistence. 

6.  Power  to  attend  and  concentrate. 

7.  Ease  or  difficulty  in  getting  started  on  new  prob- 
lems. 

8.  Power   to   use   habits   already   formed   in   new 
problems. 

9.  Ability  to  infer  and  use  evidence. 

10.  Ability  to  generalize  and  see  relationships. 

11.  Tests  for  learning  process: 


36  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

(a)  Teach  child  something  and  note  steps  in  learn- 
ing. 

(b)  Trace  his  curve  of  learning. 

(c)  Compare  and  contrast  this  curve  with  some 
other  learning  curve. 

(d)  Note  child's  ability  to  economize  as  he  goes  on. 

(e)  Apply  memory  tests  in  this  process. 

(f)  Note  evidences  of  fatigue  and  explain  each 
case  fully. 

12.  Check  up  learning  ability  of  child  with  former 
studies — how  he  is  like  others  or  different  from  them 
in  this  respect. 

13.  Note  effects  of  success  or  failure  on  child's 
learning  ability. 

Suggestive  Reading. 

Arai,  Mental  fatigue.     New  York.     1912. 

Ashley,  The  acquisition  of  skill.    Educ.  Bi-Mon.,  Feb.,  1912. 

Book,  Psychology  of  skill.     University  of  Montana.     1908. 

Colvin,  The  learning  process,  chapters  i,  ii,  iii.  New  York:  The  Mac- 
millan  Co.     1912. 

Colvin  and  Bagley,  Human  behavior,  chapters  ii,  xi,  xvii. 

ClaparEde,  Experimental  pedagogy,  chapter  v. 

Earhart,  Teaching  children  to  study.  Boston:  Houghton,  Mifflin 
Co. 

Kirkpatrick,  Genetic  psychology,  chapter  x.  New  York:  The  Mac- 
millan  Co.     1909. 

McMurry,  How  to  study  and  teaching  how  to  study.  Boston:  Hough- 
ton, Mifflin  Co. 

Meumann,  The  psychology  of  learning.  New  York:  D.  Appleton  & 
Co.     1913. 

Meyer,  The  fundamental  laws  of  human  behavior,  lectures  vii,  xvii. 
Boston:    Richard  G.  Badger. 

Offner,  Mental  fatigue.     Baltimore:    Warwick  &  York,  Inc.     1911. 

O'Shea,  Dynamic  factors  in  education,  chapter  x.  New  York,  The 
MacMillan  Co.     1906. 

Rowe,  Habit  formation  and  the  science  of  teaching.  New  York:  Long- 
mans, Green  &  Co.     1911. 

Rusk,  Introduction  to  experimental  education,  chapter  xiii. 

Swift,  Learning  and  doing.     Indianapolis:    Bobbs-Merrill  Co.     1914. 

Swift,  Mind  in  the  making,  chapter  vi. 

Thorndike,  Educational  Psychology,  Volume  III,  chapter  iii.  New 
York:    Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  1914. 

Whipple,  Manual  of  mental  and  physical  tests. 

Woodworth  and  Ladd,  Elements  of  phys.  psych.,  Part  second,  chap- 
ter viii.     New  York:   Chas.  Scribner's  Sons. 


XI. 

LANGUAGE  OF  THE  CHILD. 

The  language  of  the  growing  child  forms  an  import- 
ant means  for  finding  out  his  experiences  and  his  needs. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  language  is 
but  one  form  of  reaction,  and  a  form  that  is  so  elusive 
and  subtle  that  it  can  be  easily  misunderstood  in 
interpreting  the  child.  Because  a  child  can  use  a 
given  word,  one  must  not  jump  to  the  conclusion  that 
he  has  the  identical  meaning  that  we  possess  when  we 
use  that  word.  Words  are  always  relative  to  growth 
and  experience  and  are  not  safely  studied  apart  from 
other  forms  of  life.  Be  sure  to  relate  as  far  as  possible 
the  language  used  by  the  child  to  what  you  see  of  him 
in  other  situations.  It  may  be  found  that  a  child 
has  two  or  three  distinct  vocabularies  to  use,  one  for 
his  companions  on  the  playground,  another  for  his 
teacher,  and  a  third  for  his  mother  at  home.  Each 
vocabulary  has  its  own  merits  and  limitations  and 
meanings,  and  so  long  as  it  is  kept  for  its  own  occasion 
and  context  he  may  succeed  in  satisfying  all  parties, 
while  mixing  the  languages  may  cause  him  trouble. 
Note  carefully  the  value  of  each  of  these  forms  of 
speech  for  the  real  living  interests  of  the  child.  See 
if  he  has  not  a  greater  degree  of  interest  and  force  in 
the  life  expressed  by  the  street  and  playground  lang- 
uage than  for  that  of  the  other  relations. 

In  connection  with  this  study  an  effort  should  be 
made  to  collect  dictionaries  and  secret  languages  made 
and  used  by  children.     Secret  languages  and  signs  for 

37 


38  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

their  expressions  are  very  common  for  some  ages  of 
child  life.  They  give  the  significance  of  language  as  a 
social  medium  in  its  most  effective  sense.  Nearly 
always  such  secret  languages  and  signs  belong  to  an 
age  when  gangs  and  chumming  are  common  activities. 
The  child's  language  of  this  sort  is  for  his  own  private 
correspondence  and  conveys  his  own  meanings.  On 
the  basis  of  such  a  language  much  might  be  done  in 
the  way  of  building  up  a  real  interest  in  speech  as  a 
social  tool.  Letters  and  letter-writing  could  be  de- 
veloped from  such  an  interest  in  secret  language.  In 
the  same  way,  dramatic  activities  carry  with  them 
valuable  hints  for  language  learning.  It  is  too  often 
supposed  that  speech  is  more  important  to  the  child 
than  action  in  these  dramatic  representations,  but 
often  the  contrary  is  the  case,  and  certainly  the  prefer- 
ence is  likely  to  be  that  of  the  small  boy  in  a  children's 
performance  who  said:  "I  prefer  to  be  a  tree  in  the 
act  and  wave  my  arms  for  the  branches."  Language 
ought  to  give  one  a  most  valuable  clue  to  many  of 
the  vital  desires  of  the  child,  and  its  study  should  be 
undertaken  with  that  in  mind. 

Report  on  the  Language  of  the  Child. 

1.  Note  relation  of  language  of  child  to  home  life, 
to  companionship,  and  to  school  training. 

2.  Try  to  estimate  the  relative  influence  of  each  of 
these  on  his  use  of  language  

3.  Note  effects  of  child's  reading  on  his  language: 
vocabulary,  sentence  structure,  readiness  of  speech. 

4.  Trace  periods  of  special  language  interests: 

(a)  Speech  efforts  and  articulation  of  young  child. 

(b)  Rhyme   and   rhythm,    interest   in   jingles   and 
sounds 


LANGUAGE    OF   THE    CHILD  39 

(c)  Practice  of  pronouncing  words  to  self  before 
speaking  them  aloud. 

(d)  Secret  language  and  signs  used  for  communica- 
tion. 

(e)  Interest  in  collecting  new  words,  and  making 
dictionaries. 

(f)  Debating  and  disputing,  use  of  flowery  speech, 
etc. 

5.  Study  intelligence  of  child  in  use  of  speech: 
kinds  of  connectives,  forms  of  sentence  showing  con- 
tinuity of  thought. 

6.  Find  out  through  tests  how  words  get  meaning 
to  the  child. 

7.  Arrange  tests  for  (a)  range  of  vocabulary,  (b) 
for  numbers  of  different  words  used  to  express  a  given 
meaning. 

8.  Make  lists  of  slang  words  used  by  child  and  find 
out  source  and  value  of  such  expressions 

9.  Collect  stories,  poems  or  dramatic  plays  com- 
posed or  written  by  child  and  find  out  relationship  of 
these  to  reading  or  to  things  heard  or  to  plays  seen  . . 


10.  Note  the  presence  of  special  talent  for  language 
and  how  it  is  shown. 

11.  Make  a  list  of  the  books  and  stories  read. 

12.  Note  any  defects  of  speech  and  study  means 
for  correcting. 

Suggestive  Reading. 

Barnes,  How  words  get  content.    Studies  in  education,  series  ii,  p.  43. 

See  also  other  references  on  language  in  series  i  and  ii. 
Chamberlain,   The  child  and  childhood  in  folk-thought,  chapters  xv 

and  xvii.     New  York:   The  Macmillan  Co.     1896. 
Dewey,  How  we  think,  chapter  xiii.     Boston:    D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 

1910. 
Gesell,  The  normal  child  and  primary  education,  chapters  xi-xii. 


40  BEHAVIOR   OF  AN  INDIVIDUAL  CHILD 

Hall,  Contents  of  children's  minds  on  entering  school.  See  Aspects  of 
child  life  and  education,  pp.  1-52. 

Judd,  Psychology.  Chapter  X  on  language.  New  York:  Charles 
Scribner's  Sons.     1907. 

Major,  First  steps  in  mental  growth,  chapter  xv.  New  York:  The 
Macmillan  Co.     1907. 

Mead,  The  age  of  walking  and  talking  in  relation  to  general  intelligence. 
Ped.  Sem.  xx,  p.  460.     1913. 

Montessori,  The  Montessori  method,  chapter  xviii.  New  York:  F. 
A.  Stokes  Co.     1912. 

Morgan,  Psychology  for  teachers,  chapter  vii.  New  York:  Chas. 
Scribner's  Sons.     1906. 

O'Shea,  Linguistic  development  and  education.  New  York:  The  Mac- 
millan Co.     1907. 

Schulze,  Experimental  psychology  and  pedagogy,  p.  149. 

Scripture,  Stuttering  and  lisping.  New  York:  The  Macmillan  Co. 
1912. 

Sully,  Studies  in  childhood,  chapter  v. 

Thatcher,  Speech  defects  in  childhood  and  early  adolescence,  chapter 
x  in  Defective  children  by  Kelynack.  New  York:  Wm, 
Wood  &  Co.     1915. 

Welton,  Logical  bases  of  education,  chapter  hi.  London:  The  Mac- 
millan Co.     1901. 


XII. 

DRAWING  OF  THE  CHILD. 

Drawing  is  one  of  the  spontaneous  activities  of 
childhood  and  is  closely  allied  to  other  spontaneous 
activities,  including  speech.  In  all  the  studies  of 
children's  drawings  a  close  relationship  is  indicated 
between  the  forms  of  the  drawing  and  the  growth  of 
the  children  in  power  to  form  images  and  ideas.  The 
objects  selected  to  be  drawn  by  them  are  active  living 
ones,  as  shown  in  the  earliest  attempts  to  represent 
things.  An  " engine"  is  essentially  an  active  creature, 
as  evidenced  by  the  wreath  of  smoke  which  stands 
for  the  flying  object.  It  is  much  easier  to  begin  the 
teaching  of  drawing  through  the  story  element  simply 
because  drawing  is  essentially  a  language  of  action. 
Illustrative  of  the  story,  a  drawing  may  portray  each 
part  in  detail,  placing  each  in  its  separate  relation, 
irrespective  of  whether  or  not  the  eye  can  follow  the 
reality  of  the  subject;  or,  the  drawing  may  select  its 
materials  and  organize  them  to  suit  the  plan  of  the 
story;  or,  finally,  it  may  exaggerate  any  part  in  order 
to  show  the  importance  which  this  part  occupies  in 
the  mind  of  the  artist.  In  the  early  stages  of  drawing, 
the  child's  work  is  purely  representative  and  symbol- 
ical of  the  feelings  which  he  possesses  in  his  own  mind, 
and  therefore,  to  require  the  little  child  to  draw  from 
some  present  model  is  to  miss  his  interest  in  telling  a 
story  as  he  sees  it.  The  results  are  always  incongru- 
ous but  significant  of  the  mental  stage  of  the  artist. 
Later  in  his  work  the  child  throws  great  stress  on  that 
part  of  the  incident  which  impresses  him  most  strongly, 
which,  again,  shows  his  mental  growth. 

41 


42  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

"  Cataloguing "  of  details,  as  Barnes  calls  it,  is  a 
striking  peculiarity  of  the  seven  year  old  child's  draw- 
ing. Later  still,  the  young  artist  undertakes  to  create 
an  exact  reproduction  of  the  object  as  it  is  before  him. 
At  such  a  stage  in  growth  he  is  susceptible  to  cultiva- 
tion in  drawing  in  its  technical  aspect  and  should 
have  the  best  of  training.  Cartoons  are  typical  work 
of  boys  and  girls  of  the  upper  grade  period  and  repre- 
sent a  distinct  advance  both  in  technique  and  in  abil- 
ity to  see  peculiar  and  unique  parts  and  elements  in 
the  object  about  them,  for  which  they  invent  or  use 
symbols  of  drawing.  Almost  contemporaneous  with 
this  interest  in  cartoons  comes  the  appreciative  and 
decorative  efforts  of  children.  Children  are  no  longer 
satisfied  with  the  merely  accurate  representation  nor 
with  the  exaggeration,  but  demand  a  thing  of  beauty. 
They  begin  to  idealize  their  object  and  to  touch  it  up 
for  its  own  effects. 

In  all  of  these  peculiar  stages  in  the  growth  of  the 
interest  in  drawing,  one  must  provide  the  fullest  op- 
portunities for  expression.  Like  every  other  interest 
in  childhood,  drawing  obviously  changes  with  growth 
and  is  never  twice  the  same  thing.  It  is  much  better 
to  encourage  the  child  to  do  the  work  he  is  trying,  no 
matter  how  crude,  than  it  is  to  attempt  to  break  in 
upon  him  with  wholly  new  and  strange  kinds  of  ex- 
pression. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  necessary  always 
to  lead  him  on  to  higher  forms  of  appreciation  and 
expression,  because  to  allow  him  to  remain  at  one 
level  too  long  is  to  dull  his  capacity  to  grow.  Watch 
carefully  the  efforts  he  makes  to  draw  and  start  train- 
ing at  that  particular  point.  Work  his  own  experi- 
ences into  his  drawings  so  that  drawing  may  come  to 
stand  for  an  idealization  of  the  life  he  knows. 


drawing  of  the  child  43 

Study  Outline. 

I.  Make  collection  of  the  child's  drawings  and 
study  carefully. 

■  2.  What  motives  seem  to  inspire  his  efforts  in  draw- 
ing? 

3.  Relationship  of  his  drawings  to  other  experi- 
ences— what  he  has  seen,  done,  or  plans  to  do 

4.  Are  his  drawings  plans  for  action,  mere  pictorial 
expressions  of  impulses,  or  representations  of  ideas, 
and  do  they  tell  some  story? 

5.  Study  technique  and  skill  shown  in  his  drawings. 

6.  Note  how  far  intelligence  enters  into  his  draw- 
ings :   outline,  details,  proportions  and  values 

7.  Watch  for  any  possible  talent  in  drawings  . . . 

8.  Study  attitude  of  child  toward  drawing  as  a 
school  subject  and  note  his  likes  or  dislikes  for  it ... . 

9.  Compare  work  in  drawing  with  child's  work  in 
other  lines 

10.  Compare  his  drawing  with  studies  on  drawings 
of  other  children ►. 

II.  Compare  spontaneous  drawings  with  his  work 
as  directed  in  school 

12.  Devise  tests  to  show  ability  of  child  to  draw 
and  compare  your  tests  with  those  devised  by  others. 

Suggestive  Reading. 

Ater,  Psychology  of  drawing.   Baltimore:  Warwick  &  York,  Inc.  1916. 

Barnes,  Studies  in  education.     Many  references  in  Series  I  and  II. 
Brown,  Notes  on  children's  drawing.     University  of  California  Studies. 

Volume  II. 
Child,  Measurement  of  drawing  ability  of  2177  children.     Jour.  Educ 

Psych.,  September,  1915. 


44  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

Clark,  Children's  ideas  of  perspective.     Barnes,  Studies  in  education, 

Series  I,  pp.  283  ff. 
Dewey,  The  elementary  school  record,  Number  one.     The  University 

of  Chicago.     February,  1900. 
Fischlovitz,  Inductive  studies  of  abilities  involved  in  drawing.  Columbia 

University  Contributions  to  Philosophy,  Psych.  &  Educ,  Vol. 

XL 
Gesell,  The  normal  child  and  primary  education,  chapter  ix. 
Hall,  Educational  problems,  volume  ii,  chapter  xx. 
Kelley's  Teachers'  marks — Conclusions  from  application  of  Thorndike's 

scale. 
Major,  First  steps  in  mental  growth,  chapter  hi. 
Sargent,   Fine  and  industrial  arts  in  elementary  schools,  pp.   32-46. 

Boston:   Ginn  &  Co. 
Schxjlze,  Experimental  psychology  and  pedagogy,  p.  152. 
Sully,  Studies  in  childhood,  chapter  ix-x. 
Tanner,  The  child,  chapter  xviii.     See  bibliography. 
Thorndike,    Measurement   of   drawing.    Teachers'    College    Record, 

November,  1913.     Volume  14. 


XIII. 

MOVEMENTS  AND  MOTOR  ABILITY  OF  THE 

CHILD. 

From  the  beginning  of  life  the  child  moves.  By- 
movement  he  grows  and  takes  on  adult  form  and 
characteristics.  The  fact  that  schools  of  present  day 
are  attempting  to  provide  for  activities  on  a  large 
scale,  is  in  line  with  an  understanding  of  the  import- 
ance of  movements  in  the  life  of  the  growing  child. 
We  are  yet  far  from  a  perfect  realization  in  practice 
of  the  importance  of  free  movement  and  of  the  possi- 
bilities for  education  of  such  an  arrangement.  Close 
observation  of  movements  already  noted  under  play, 
instinctive  activities,  the  learning  process,  language, 
and  drawing  will  reveal  the  points  called  for  in  this 
study.  All  such  movements  should  be  collected  and 
classified  under  the  head  of  "  motor  control."  Note 
the  conditions  under  which  the  child  makes  his  most 
effective  movements.  Find  out  if  possible  whether 
the  time  of  day  has  any  influence  upon  his  action  and 
control.  Relate  movements  as  far  as  you  can  to 
motives  on  the  one  hand  and  to  habits  on  the  other. 
Keep  a  careful  diary  of  the  acts  of  the  child.  Notice 
how  much  more  quickly  he  tires  where  movements 
are  forced  upon  him,  than  in  occupations  chosen  by 
himself.  Why  is  this  so?  See  also  if  you  can  discover 
the  effects  of  monotonous  movements  as  compared 
with  new  and  difficult  work  in  their  effects  upon 
fatigue.  In  making  tests  for  motor  capacity  it  is 
necessary  to  adopt  definite  standards  for  measuring 
results,  such  as  surplus  movements,  rate  of  move- 
ments, precision,  and  strength. 

45 


46  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

Some  movements  are  large,  crude,  and  strong,  while 
others  are  finer,  more  delicate,  and  indicate  skill.  By 
some  writers  the  first  class  is  designated  as  "  funda- 
mental movements"  and  the  latter  as  " accessory." 
Fundamental  movements  belong  to  the  earlier  years 
of  childhood,  though  they  have  periods  of  prominence 
all  through  the  growing  age.  Skill  is  based  upon 
strength,  and  is,  therefore,  a  product  of  later  growth 
and  training.  In  studying  the  child  it  is  desirable 
to  trace  the  growth  of  these  two  forms  of  movement 
and  to  attempt  to  provide  exercises  appropriate  to 
the  growth  of  each. 

Study  Outline. 

1.  Note  movements  in  play  and  work — skillful, 
awkward,  quick,  slow,  impulsive,  left-handed,  ambi- 
dextrous. 

2.  General  movements  of  the  body:  good  or  poor 
control,  well  co-ordinated,  intelligent,  purposeful  or 
random  and  aimless,  slovenly  or  slouchy,  strong,  firm, 
weak,  faltering  or  definite  and  effective. 

3.  Power  of  endurance,  strength  and  precision. 

4.  Note  walking:  shambling  or  regular,  quick, 
nervous,  slow,  precise. 

5.  Speech  characteristics:  articulation,  good  or 
defective,  hurried  and  indistinct,  or  deliberate  and 
clear;  effects  of  excitement  on  speech,  high  pitched  or 
low  voice. 

6.  Posture,  standing  and  sitting:  erect,  crumpled, 
amount  of  effort  required  to  keep  erect,  restless, 
quiet. 

7.  Peculiar  movements:  face,  eyes,  mouth  and 
tongue,  hands,  fingers.  Note  over-mobility  and  mul- 
tiplicity of  movements. 


MOTOR   ABILITY  47 

8.  Tests:  strength  of  grip,  endurance,  rate  of 
tapping,  steadiness,  control  in  balancing,  aiming,  and 
tracing  (much  of  this  can  be  seen  in  child's  writing, 
drawing,  running  and  other  activities). 

9.  Contrive  a  task  in  work  or  play  and  note  the 
exact  number  of  movements,  practice  until  these  are 
reduced  to  minimum. 

10.  Classify  movements  as  fundamental  and  ac- 
cessory or  combinations. 

Suggestive  Reading. 

Book,  Psychology  of  skill. 

Bryan,  On  the  development  of  voluntary  motor  ability.     Am.  Jour.  Psy. 

Volume  v,  125. 
Burk,    From  fundamental   to   accessory.     Ped.   Sem.    volume   vi,    pp. 

1-60. 
Cornell,  Health  and  medical  inspection,  pp.  331-338. 
Davenport,    Education  for   efficiency,    chapter   iv.     Boston:     D.    C. 

Heath  &  Co.     1909. 
Gesell,  The  normal  child  and  primary  education,  chapter  vii. 
Hall,  Adolescence,  volume  I,  chapter  iii. 
Partridge,  Outline  of  individual  study,  pp.  85-91. 
Swift,  Learning  and  doing.     Indianapolis:    The  Bobbs-Merrill  Co. 
Tanner,  The  child,  chapter  xiv. 

Terman,  The  hygiene  of  the  school  child,  chapters  vii,  xvi,  xvii. 
Thorndike,  Principles  of  teaching,  chapters  xiii-xiv.    New  York:  A.  G. 

Seiler.     1906. 
Warner,  The  study  of  children,  chapter  v. 
Whipple,   Manual   of  mental  and  physical  tests.     See  directions  for 

tests. 


XIV. 
MORAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  CHILD. 

We  are  prone  to  judge  children's  moral  character  by 
adult  standards.  Likewise  we  are  prone  to  overlook 
the  deepest  and  most  abiding  elements  in  their  lives — 
their  sorrows,  their  loves,  their  hates,  and  their  ambi- 
tions. It  is  an  obvious  impossibility  for  us  to  enter 
into  the  child's  world  of  aspirations,  fears,  and  points 
of  view,  and,  consequently,  dangerous  for  us  to  at- 
tempt to  impose  our  adult  morality  literally  upon 
him.  Democracy  demands  that  the  right  of  each 
to  judge  for  himself  and  to  act  upon  his  judgment 
must  be  respected.  It  is  customary  to  accept  this 
doctrine  of  democracy  for  all  cases  except  those  of 
children.  How  often  have  we  in  our  smug  assumption 
of  infallibility  made  judgments  for  our  children  and 
subsequently  been  chagrined  by  discovering  ourselves 
in  the  wrong!  Growth  of  moral  character  depends 
upon  the  individual's  right  and  opportunity  to  make 
selections  and  to  stick  to  them  until  he  reaches  some 
conclusion,  good  or  bad.  This  implies  that  children 
should  be  allowed  to  try  for  themselves,  to  make 
mistakes  and  to  be  encouraged  to  correct  them.  It  is 
possible  to  accord  this  right  to  them  if  we  take  care 
that  their  judgments  are  made  within  the  limits  of  a 
child's  world  of  persons  and  realities. 

Watch  closely  the  meaning  of  temptations  on  the 
child.  Meet  the  child  on  the  level  of  frankness,  hon- 
esty, and  confidence,  and  he  will  return  like  respect 

48 


MOKAL   CHARACTERISTICS  49 

to  you.  It  is  not  necessary  that  one  be  visionary 
and  without  firmness  to  deal  on  this  level  with  a  child. 
Unless  honesty  pervade  your  dealing  with  him,  your 
work  will  avail  you  very  little  and  will  be  harmful  to  him. 
In  his  school  work  find  out  his  standards  for  judging 
and  acting  in  his  relation  with  others.  Why  do  chil- 
dren sometimes  cheat  on  examinations?  What  effects 
have  "marks"  on  their  sense  of  responsibility?  On 
playground  watch  for  evidences  of  spontaneous  acts 
possessing  honorable  or  dishonorable  tendencies.  Try 
to  formulate  the  standards  of  conduct  which  the 
child  uses  in  dealing  with  his  elders,  with  compan- 
ions, and  with  himself.  These  standards  are  his 
foundation  for  character.  They  should  change  with 
his  growth  in  power  of  comprehension  and  of  re- 
sponsibility. Help  him  thus  to  formulate  standards 
of  conduct  that  will  enlarge  his  horizon  and  enable 
him  to  see  more  clearly  the  values  of  life  as  he  grows 
to  meet  them. 

Study  Outline. 

1.  Note  cases  of  fairness  and  honesty  in  play  and 
work,  straightforwardness  and  bravery. 

2.  Record  acts  of  deception,  lies,  concealment,  sly- 
ness, cowardice. 

3.  Note  also  cheating  in  any  form. 

4.  Note  evidences  of  ill-temper,  lack  of  self-control, 
quarrelsomeness . 

5.  Stubbornness,  sulkiness,  pouting,  peevishness,  or 
fits  of  jealousy. 

6.  Perversions  of  any  sort — fears,  morbidness,  ma- 
nias. 

7.  Watch  for  kindliness,   sympathy,   unselfishness, 
self-sacrifice. 


50  BEHAVIOR   OF   AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

8.  Study  and  report  cases  of  loyalty. 

9.  Cases  of  vanity,  conceit,  boastfulness,  and  brag- 
ging. 

10.  Sense  of  responsibility,  trustworthiness. 

11.  Sticking  to  some  principle  under  all  circum- 
stances. 

12.  Discover  any  ideals  of  conduct  and  righteous- 
ness which  child  has. 

13.  Study  the  persons  the  child  admires  and  imi- 
tates. 

14.  Character  of  stories  he  reads  or  hears  and  likes — 
moral,  immoral  or  unmoral  in  quality. 

15.  Sense  of  right  and  wrong,  remorse  and  shame 
for  wrong  doing. 

16.  Test  moral  ideas  by  stories  or  pictures,  and  plan 
situations  which  allow  you  to  judge  of  sense  of  honesty 
and  fairness. 

17.  Classify  all  actions  which  you  think  have  moral 
quality  under  head  of  moral  conduct. 

18.  Note  whether  child  tends  to  justify  himself 
because  "some  one  else  did  it." 

Suggestive  Reading. 

Barnes,  Studies  in  education.     First  and  second  series. 

Bolton,  Principles  of  education,  chapter  xxvii. 

Boutboux,  Education  and  ethics.     New  York:    The  Macmillan  Co. 

1913. 
Bruce-Wiener,  The  education  of  Karl  Witte,  chapter  xvi.     New  York: 

T.  Y.  CroweU  &  Co.,  1914. 
Coffin,    The   socialized   conscience.     Baltimore:     Warwick    &    York. 

1913. 
Dewey,   Moral  principles  in  education.    Boston:  Houghton,   Mifflin 

Co.     1909. 
Dewey  and  Tufts,  Ethics.     New  York:   Henry  Holt  &  Co.     1908. 
Drake,  Problems  of  conduct.     Boston.     1914. 
Groszmann,  The  career  of  the  child,  chapter  xix.     Boston.     Richard 

G.  Badger. 
Gruenberg,  Your  child  today  and  tomorrow,  chapters  ii,  iv,  vii. 
Hall,  Youth,  chapter  xii.     New  York:   Appleton  &  Co.     1906. 


MORAL   CHARACTERISTICS  51 

Hall,    Children's    lies.    Ted.    Sem.     1891,    pp.    211-218.     See    also 

Educational  problems,    volume    I,    chapter    vi.     New  York: 

Appleton.     1911. 
Holmes,  Principles  of  character  making,  chapter  xii. 
King,    Psychology   of  child   development,    chapters   xi-xiv.     Chicago: 

Univ.  of  Chicago. 
MacDougall,  Social  psychology,  chapter  ix. 
Moral  training  in  the  public  schools.    California  prize  essays.     Boston  J 

Ginn  &  Co. 
Pyle,  The  outline  of  educational  psychology,  chapter  xii.     Baltimore: 

Warwick  &  York,  Inc. 
Rusk,  Introduction  to  experimental  education,  pp.  124-133. 
Schofp,  The  wayward  child,  chapter  i. 
Scott,  Social  education,  chapter  xii. 
Sully,  Studies  in  childhood,  chapters  vii-viii. 
Sisson,  The  essentials  of  character.    New  York:    The  Macmillan  Co. 

1910. 
Tanner,  The  child,  chapter  x.     See  bibliography. 
Young,  Ethics  in  the  school.     Chicago:    The  University  of  Chicago. 

1902. 


XV. 
THE  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILD. 

Every  child  is  in  some  respects  an  exceptional  child 
and  must  receive  consideration  as  such.  When  you 
begin  your  associations  with  the  child,  do  so  by  becom- 
ing familiar  with  his  individual  traits  and  peculiar- 
ities. Describe  fully  all  the  traits  which  distinguish 
him.  If  some  of  these  are  striking,  follow  them  out 
and  try  to  devise  ways  of  controlling  them,  i.  e., 
encouraging  or  utilizing  or  discouraging  them.  Many 
children  are  highly  gifted  in  some  direction.  If  you 
have  to  deal  with  such  a  case,  consider  how  to  provide 
proper  advantages  for  it.  Since  each  has  his  own 
strength  or  weakness,  the  question  as  to  whether 
it  is  better  to  encourage  him  along  the  line  of  the 
former  or  to  dwell  upon  the  latter  in  order  to  bring 
it  up  to  a  given  standard  is  one  that  must  be  considered. 
If  the  child  has  obvious  defects  try  to  relieve  them. 
Secure  parental  cooperation  and  consent  to  have  needs 
attended  to  and  find  places  and  institutions  where 
children  suffering  from  such  difficulties  may  be  handled. 
Numerous  facilities  are  available  for  curable  defects 
and  it  is  your  business  to  help  find  them  for  the  suf- 
fering child.  Whether  your  case  be  strength,  weak- 
ness, or  mediocrity,  try  to  discover  the  traits  of  im- 
portance in  handling  him  and  in  providing  for  his 
welfare. 

Study  especially  to  see  how  far  his  school  work 
ministers  to  his  peculiar  needs.  If  he  has  a  talent  for 
some  occupation,  is  the  talent  being  properly  directed 
by  the  school?  Is  one  capacity  being  sacrificed  for 
the  sake  of  another?    If  the  case  is  one  of  weakness, 

52 


THE   EXCEPTIONAL   CHILD  53 

it  should  be  remembered  that  physical  weakness  and 
malnutrition  often  lie  at  the  basis  of  mental  defects 
and  care  should  be  directed  to  make  the  child  sound 
in  body  before  trying  to  accomplish  anything  import- 
ant with  his  mind. 

Study  Outline. 

1.  Note  whether  child  has  special  capacities  or  inter- 
ests. 

2.  Note  any  peculiarities  which  mark  him  off  from 
others. 

3.  Collect  and  study  his  drawings,  what  they  show 
as  to  mentality,  etc. 

4.  If  he  has  made  collections,  study  and  classify. 

5.  Note  objects  constructed:  doll  clothes,  toys,  etc., 
and  discover  his  motives,  his  ability  to  make  things 
and  his  needs. 

6.  Give  evidences  of  dramatic  ability,  watch  his 
plays  and  acting. 

7.  Note  special  musical  ability,  direction  of  interest 
and  kind  of  music. 

8.  Note  interest  in  dancing— kind  and  character. 

9.  Interest  in  experimentation,  in  prying  into  things 
and  secrets. 

10.  Interest  in  outdoor  activities — hunting,  swim- 
ming, gardening. 

11.  Attitude  towards  pets,  if  unusual,  and  what 
this  is. 

12.  Interest  in  particular  people,  and  reason  for 
interest. 

13.  Particular  bent  in  reading— stories,  poetry,  etc. 

14.  Special  gift  in  writing— character  and  degree. 

15.  If  child  is  below  grade  in  some  respect,  note 


54  BEHAVIOR   OF  AN   INDIVIDUAL   CHILD 

difficulty,  devise  tests  to  discover  the  kind  and  amount 
of  such  deficiency. 

16.  In  connection  with  home  conditions  find  out 
about  heredity  of  exceptional  child  and  account  for 
his  condition  if  possible. 

17.  After  testing  and  finding  peculiarity,  devise 
means  for  dealing  with  his  case  effectively. 

Suggestive  Reading. 

Ayres,  Laggards  in  our  schools.     New  York  Charities.     1909. 

Barnes,  Studies  in  education.  First  and  second  series.  Important 
material. 

Barnes,  The  public  school  and  the  special  child.  N.  E.  A.  1908,  pp. 
1118-1123. 

Bolton,  Principles  of  education,  chapter  xii. 

Bruce,  Psychology  and  parenthood,  chapter  iv. 

Bruce- Wiener,  The  education  of  Karl  Witte. 

Dewey,  School  and  society,  pp.  15-40.  Chicago:  The  University  of 
Chicago.     1900. 

Dewey,  Schools  of  tomorrow,  chapter  vi. 

Dopp,  The  place  of  industries  in  education,  chapters  ii-iii.  Chicago: 
The  University  of  Chicago.     1905. 

Goddard,  Feeblemindedness.     New  York:   The  Macmillan  Co.     1915. 

Healy,  The  individual  delinquent.  Boston:  Little,  Brown  &  Co. 
1915. 

Holmes,  School  organization  and  the  individual  child,  chapter  x.  Wor- 
cester.    1912. 

MacMillan,  The  discovery  and  training  of  exceptionally  bright  children. 
In  The  child  in  the  city,  pp.  203-212. 

Mill,  Autobiography. 

Huey,  Backward  and  feeble  minded  children.  Baltimore:  Warwick  & 
York.     1912. 

Morgan,  The  backward  child.  New  York.  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 
1914. 

Sachs,  Nervous  diseases  of  children.     New  York:   Wood  &  Co.     1905. 

Seguin,  Idiocy:  treatment  by  physiological  method.  New  York:  Wood 
&  Co.     1866.     Also  1907. 

Shuttleworth  and  Potts,  Mentally  deficient  children.  Philadelphia: 
Blakiston's  Sons  &  Co.     1910. 

Sully,  Studies  in  childhood,  chapters  ix,  x,  xii. 

Stern,  The  supernormal  child.     Jour.  Ed.  Ps}'.,  Mar.,  Apr.,  1911. 

Stoner,  Natural  education.     Indianapolis:    Bobbs-Merrill  Co.     1914. 

Terman,  Precocious  children.     Forum.,  Dec,  1914. 

Thorndike,  Individuality.     Boston:    Houghton,  Mifflin  Co.     1911. 

Tredgold,  Mental  deficiency.     New  York,  Wood  &  Co.     1908. 

Wallin,  Experimental  studies  of  mental  defectives.  Baltimore:  War- 
wick &  York.     1912. 


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